Background

The late 18th and early 19th centuries were times of economic and political trials and tribulations for the young republic. During its first years in the 1780s and 90s, the US had enjoyed reasonably good trade relations with both Great Britain and France. However, with the French Revolution (1789) and the antagonism between France and Britain, the US found it difficult to stay neutral. Even though an ocean separated the US from Europe, the struggle between the two European superpowers influenced American politics. The Federalists, under George Washington, John Adams, and Alexander Hamilton, tended to favor Britain, while the Democratic-Republicans under Thomas Jefferson favored the French.

In the 1790s, Great Britain pressured the US to cut trade with France. Despite his personal inclinations toward Great Britain, Washington steadfastly followed a policy of neutrality. This led to numerous conflicts at sea in which the powerful British navy intercepted US ships, seized cargoes, and attempted to impress US sailors to serve on behalf of the British navy. Americans were furious with these hostile actions, but Washington’s successor, John Adams, followed his lead and continued the policy of neutrality in what soon became a general war in Europe. Its conflicts are called the Napoleonic Wars, named after the general, dictator, and then emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte.

After the 1800 presidential election, the Democratic-Republican Party, under its leader Thomas Jefferson, became ascendant as the Federalists declined in power. But Jefferson also strove to follow the now well-established policy of neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars. His problem was that the Napoleonic Wars were raging in the first decade of the 18th century. Great Britain and France were at war by both sea and land. The Atlantic Ocean became a war zone. Any trade with the other country was seen as an act of war. Jefferson preferred to punish British transgressions on American shipping with commercial, rather than military, retaliatory acts.

The popular Jefferson, nevertheless, made a serious foreign policy error that had repercussions for domestic policy. He signed The Embargo Act of 1807, which prevented, or embargoed, all trade with both Great Britain and France. The anticipated effect of this measure — economic hardship for the belligerent nations — was expected to chasten Great Britain and France and force them to end their molestation of American shipping, respect US neutrality, and cease the policy of impressment. The embargo, however, actually punished merchants in the US who were doing business and shipping with Great Britain. This was particularly true of New England merchants, a part of the country that was more in favor of the Federalist Party. The act was repealed in the last days of Jefferson’s presidency in 1809.

While Federalists made gains in the election of 1808, nevertheless, the Democratic-Republicans gained the presidency again with their candidate James Madison. The damage that the Embargo Act had done to American shipping and Federalists’ bitterness at losing the presidential contest again did considerable harm to American unity and faith in their government. And there was still the problem of the hostile British naval policies. Tension increased until in June 1812 when Madison declared war on Great Britain in what would be called the War of 1812. Madison was reelected in November 1812, and in 1813, he signed a harsher embargo act. All American ports were affected, and fishing outside of US harbors was prohibited.

While many Americans supported the war with Britain, New England Federalists did not. The more the Democratic-Republicans dominated presidential and Congressional politics and the more the war dragged on, the more they felt that their voices would never be heard. Emotions were highest in Massachusetts and Connecticut. When Madison sought legislation in 1814 for conscription (compulsory service) of soldiers to support the war, rumors of the possibility of secession from, or leaving, the Union swept New England.

New Englanders began to meet in secret at the state house in Hartford, Connecticut. From December 1814 to January 1815, a group of Federalists deliberated at what became known as the Hartford Convention. In all, 26 delegates attended. Fearing charges of treason and possible prison time, the members did not record the proceedings. Whether the states actually sought secession has been questioned because the only evidence of this notion is found in letters written by attendees’ peers.

There were several issues that Federalists wanted to address at the Hartford Convention. They wanted to remove the Three-Fifths Compromise from the Constitution that counted slaves for Congressional representation and gave Virginia a lot of power. They wanted higher requirements for admission of new states to the Union. They called for more restrictions on a declaration of war, and they wanted embargoes lasting more than 60 days to be prohibited. They even wanted a requirement that each president must hail from a state different from the preceding president. Some radicals at the Convention also called for the secession of New England from the greater United States and a separate peace with Great Britain. But moderates prevailed.

The Hartford Convention provisions were presented in Washington, DC. But, by this time, General Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans, forcing the British to retreat and sign a peace treaty to end the war with the US. Madison's and Jackson’s triumph was a great blow. The delegates to the Hartford Convention were discredited and disgraced, their cause seen as treasonous. The Federalist Party soon lost credibility and was no longer a national force in US politics, as can be seen by the cartoon in the Source. A series of other parties filled the vacuum on the right for many years until the Republican Party formed just before the American Civil War.